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A food multi-mix to address malnutrition amongst primary school children living in Eatonside
(2006-01) Oosthuizen, Delia; Napier, C.; Oldewage-Theron, Wilna
The primary objective of this study was to formulate a multi-mix, which could supply at least one-third of the daily requirements of primary school children, aged six to 13 years. The secondary objective was to ensure the adherence to the criteria of multi-mix formulation, which included affordability, convenient, palatability, culturally acceptable and cost effective, whilst providing high nutritional value for the specified target group. The nutritional criteria included the Index Nutrient Quality (INQ) and Energy Density (ED) requirements, for a specific target group. This study was conducted in Eatonside, an informal settlement situated in Gauteng. A situational analysis previously conducted in Eatonside (Napier 2003) showed that the children between the ages of six and 13 years, were 17% underweight (weight-for-age -2SD from the reference NCHS median), 12,7% were wasted (BMI-for-age -2SD) and 18% stunted (height-for-age -2SD). With the nutritional requirements of children and the most consumed food list, the multi-mix formulation began. Foods from the Top 20 list (Napier 2003), were combined with the ingredients most common within the households, and vegetable gardens already established . Estimated nutritional values were calculated using the food composition tables of South Africa. The ingredients were prepared and chemically analysed to determine the experimental nutritional value and to assess if the nutritional objectives were being achieved. The multi-mix was then combined with other commonly consumed ingredients to form recipes and sensory evaluated by professionals and the primary school children to assess the acceptability of the multi-mix and recipes. The multi-mix and recipe products were then sent for shelf life testing to assess its storage time at room temperature. The results from the nutritional analyses showed nutrient values to be above 30 percent of the Estimated Average Requirements (EAR). The INQ of the targeted nutrients was above 1,0 and the ED at 3,7kcal/g, which was within the 3,6-4,5 kcal/g requirements. The sensory evaluation for the multi-mix recipes had proved favourable response to snack items with preference for sweet products. The final evaluation session resulted in scores of 83.9 percent preference to the biscuit with the sweet muffin scoring 94.5 percent liking, whilst the savoury muffin at 73.1 percent. The average scores for all three recipes were above 80 percent. The multi-mix had a shelf life of minimum one-month, the biscuit, seven days and muffins, only 24 hours, at room temperature. The objectives of cultural acceptability had been achieved through the positive response from the use of ingredients within the community. The multi-mix had been cost effective as the final cost of R1.55, was within the R2.90 spent per person per day, for all three meals (Oidewage-Theron eta/. 2005). Further studies need to be conducted in order to implement the multi-mix into an intervention within the community to assess the effect on nutritional status. This study, aimed to reduce the underlying cause of malnutrition, food insecurity, by improving the nutritional status of children aged six to 13 years with the strengthening of food intake, through the combination of various scant ingredients, a multi-mix, providing maximum nutritional value with small quantities. An advantage of the multi-mix is a lower cost when compared with tablet supplementation on the market and versatility in relation to various recipes.
Purchasing patterns of major plant staples in low-income households in the Vaal Triangle
(2006-09) Amuli, Dorah John; Duvenage, S. S.; Spowart, J.
Very poor families, mostly in developing parts of the world, consume a monotonous staple diet out of need and are least likely to eat healthy diets. This study focussed on how the low income households in the urbanised informal settlement of Eatonside used available income to buy plant staples (situation analysis), the share of the food budget Rand allocated to this (investigative survey), as well as the extent of influence of low income, food prices, and locality on the buying behaviour. The aspects of where, how much, when and how low-income households purchased were examined in order to determine the purchasing patterns for plant staples. From the households surveyed, most (62,2%) received an income of less than R500.00/month. Household size affected food purchasing and varied according to the type of household head. Total food budget expenditure by male-headed households was 83,1 percent, 58,1 percent by female-headed households and 27,9 percent by de facto headed households. The total average share/portion of the food budget allocated to purchasing of plant staples was reported as R64.63 ±(R8.04). While male-headed households spent 15 percent of the total share/portion/month allocated to purchasing of plant staples, female-headed households spent 23,1 percent and de facto-headed households spent 21,1 percent. Total average expenditure allocated to plant staples was 58,1 percent for maize meal, 23,2 percent for rice, 4,6 percent for mabella, 3,9 percent for sugar beans, 3,7 percent for samp, 2,5 percent for split peas and 4 percent on various other plant staples. Price and quantity (63,6%) were main purchasing indicators. Less plant staples were purchased when prices were high and more when prices were low. Normally when prices of other food products are high, people buy more staples to survive. Most frequent purchases for maize meal was 12,5 kg (65%) once a month (41,7%) at an average price of R32.80 per unit from spaza shops. Plant staples were mostly purchased once a month (80,2%) at supermarkets (47%) or spaza shops (42%). The urbanised low income households of Eatonside were poor, leading to the allocation of a major component of the budget to food (plant staples). Purchasing patterns, plant staples, low-income households, Eatonside informal settlement.
Visual learning in a graphic design setting
(2006-10) Chmela-Jones, Katarzyna Anna; Gaede, R. J.; Buys, C.
An exploratory study was undertaken at three campuses of the Vaal University of Technology in response to weak examination results in one of the subjects of the graphic design curriculum. The aim of the study was to investigate visual learning strategies as used in conjunction with co-operative learning approaches in a higher education setting and to asses the appropriateness of these learning approaches in the discipline of graphic design at first-year level. The research questions that guided the study focused on how first-year graphic design learners experience (a) visual learning strategies, (b) a cooperative learning environment, as well as (c) the combination of these. The literature review component of the study covered (1) the fundamentals of visual learning, including the concepts of visual literacy, visual semiotics and visual culture; (2) graphic design education, especially in a South African context; and (3) principles of co~operative learning, including Avenant's requirements for successful group work. In the field work component of the study, multiple-choice questionnaires, open-ended questionnaires and focus group interviews were used as the main data collection methods. The results of the study did not indicate that first-year learners enrolled in the discipline of graphic design are likely to benefit from a combination of visual learning and co-operative learning strategies. Therefore, the implementation of a combination of the above-mentioned teaching strategies is not recommended in this setting.
Photo-elicitation in qualitative research
(2006-11) Pompe van Meerdervoort, Tracy; Gaede, R. J.
The aim of the study The aim of the study is to find an optimal research methodology that is both beneficial to qualitative researchers (regarding data quality and interviewee participation) and research participants (regarding enjoyment of the research process and means of expression). This takes the form of a comparison assessing the use of the visual method of photo-elicitation in qualitative interviews. Firstly, photo-elicitation interviews and standard qualitative interviews as two different methodologies are compared. In this study the research subjects are children, and as noted in Chapter 3, photo-elicitation is particularly applicable to young research subjects, as it tends to break down the communication barriers
The relationship between visual and verbal codes of visual rhetoric in a sequential art setting
(2007-11) Van der Merwe, Ernest; Gaede, R. J.
The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between visual and verbal codes of visual rhetoric in a sequential art setting. The literature investigation component of the study covered: (1) the notion of visual literacy; (2) the principles of visual rhetoric, and (3) trends in sequential art. The empirical component of the study involved the production of sequential art test material with an accompanying questionnaire in order to measure the comprehension of visual rhetoric in a sample of 197 undergraduate students at the Vaal University of Technology. The working hypotheses that guided the study were, firstly, that the comprehension of the visual code of the visual rhetoric used in a sequential art setting differs between (a) study participants that received visual training prior to the data collection and (b) study participants that received no visual training prior to the data collection, and secondly, that the comprehension of the visual code of the visual rhetoric used in a sequential art setting differs between (a) study participants that received test material in their home language and (b) study participants that did not receive the test material in their home language. Following a one-way ANOVA analysis of the questionnaire data, the first hypothesis indicated a significant statistical difference (p=O.OO) and was not rejected. The second hypothesis indicated no significant statistical difference (p=0.138) and was rejected. Based on the result obtained, possibilities for further research were motivated.
Evaluative criteria applied by selected female fashion consumers in the Vaal Region when purchasing casual daywear
(2007-12) Hugo, Susanna Hendrina; Egal, A. A.
Criteria used by fashion consumers to assess the quality of apparel products during the decision-making process are a good indication of what considerations to keep in mind for customer satisfaction. Evaluative criteria of concern to apparel customers are intrinsic attributes, involving physical features such as design/style, materials and construction and performance features such as aesthetic and functional aspects and extrinsic attributes such as price, brand, store image, label, country of origin and appropriateness for the occasion, in this case casual day wear. The broad research aim of this exploratory study was to determine which evaluative criteria were used by female fashion consumers in the Vaal Region to determine apparel quality when purchasing casual daywear, and to what extent the various criteria were applied. A self-administered, structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. Sections 1 and 2 measured the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic clothing evaluative criteria. Section 3 investigated the frequency with which the respondents bought casual daywear at various store types, namely specialty, department and discount stores, while section 4 gathered the demographic information of the respondents. A representative sample was chosen from the academic personnel of all seven tertiary institutions in the Vaal Region. The majority of the lecturers (38.00 percent) were between the ages of 31 and 40, which can be described as relatively young, constituting a group sometimes referred to as baby busters or Generation X. Although the predominant population group was white (65.71 percent), a quarter of the respondents were black. They all had a tertiary qualification, indicating a relatively high educational level, and an average income. These espondents were predominantly married, either by orthodox or customary marriage. Regarding the application of evaluative criteria for quality assessment, these respondents used intrinsic apparel attributes to a greater extent than extrinsic attributes. Three functional performance aspects namely durability, comfort and fit were rated equal and most important for judging quality, followed closely by an extrinsic attribute namely appropriateness for casual daywear. Three clusters of respondents could be distinguished, each with a specific disposition towards the evaluative criteria. The most popular store type for clothing was Department stores, followed by Discount and Specialty stores.
Development of a food multimix to address malnutrition amongst the elderly
(2008-05) Matiwane, N. B.; Oldewage-Theron, W. H.
Introduction and purpose - The study was conducted in order to determine the nutritional status of the elderly attending a care centre in Sharpeville in order to develop a novel food item, to address malnutrition and to test and analyse the novel food item for acceptability (sensory analysis) and shelflife. Methodology - A randomly selected sample of 170 elderly, including males and females, aged sixty and above participated in the research. A cross-sectional survey included sociodemographic, health and twenty-four hour recall questionnaires as well as anthropometric and biochemical measurements. Trained fieldworkers assisted with data collection dietary intake and food measurements consumption data were captured and analysed with assistance of a qualified dietician using a Food Finder ® version 3.0 program in to determine the frequency, mean and standard deviations. The socio-demographic and health data, biochemical and anthropometric measurements were analysed for means and SDs. Results - Although 100 percent of the elderly received a monthly pension, the majority (72 percent) were bread winners in the households. The majority of households (65,8 percent) had a monthly income ofR 501-1 000. Eighty two percent of the respondents indicated that they bought food once a month and the food was bought mostly from local supermarkets (68,2percent) which are generally very expensive. Most households (63,1percent) spent less than R200 on food per week. Taking into consideration that the average household size was 4,9, it was calculated to be less than R5,80 per person per day. The Top 20 food consumption list indicated that the majority of food items consumed were carbohydrate-based. Dietary intake results confirmed that these households consumed mainly a carbohydrate-based diet and although the daily protein intake was sufficient, the diet was also deficient in total energy and dietary fibre, as well as a number of micronutrients including calcium, magnesium, zinc, selenium, iodine, thiamine, riboflavin, vitamins B6, C, D, E, biotin, pantothenate and folate. These findings indicated the prevalence of undernutrition The biochemical data showed that 73,1 percent of the elderly had low serum zinc levels. A large percentage of men and women had sub-optimal haemoglobin levels. Most of the biochemical variables were within the normal range, however the mean cholesterol level was 5,4 ± 1 ,4mmol/l which was higher than the normal range of 5,2mmolll. The majority ofthe females were overweight and obese, signifying overnutrition in the sample of elderly people. The health status of the respondents was also compromised. A large number of subjects were taking chronic medication (55,9percent) and suffered from a number of disorders including painful joints (70,6percent), enteral infections 72,4 percent) and chronic headaches (48,2percent). Forty one percent received chronic hypertension medication A food multimix was formulated, which involved the blending of locally available, affordable, culturally acceptable and commonly consumed food commodities mixed proportionally, drawing on the 'nutrient strengths' of each component of the mix in order to optimise the nutritive value of the end-product without the need for fortification. The initial estimates of energy and nutrient content of the ingredients needed the appropriate food databases. The nutrient content was calculated using the SA food composition data and Food Finder/Dietary Manager®. At least 30 percent target ratio of the RDA was met in most nutrients in the food multimix. Proximate analysis was carried out to determine macronutrients such as energy, protein, carbohydrate and micronutrients such as zinc and iron content of multimixes. Carbohydrate and energy content were derived using data gained from the analytical procedures. Sub-samples of formulated FMM recipes were taken and prepared for analysis and shelf life testing of the FMM, soup and spinach muffin was also carried. The end products of multimix formulated were two recipes namely cream spinach soup and low sodium spinach muffms. Eighty percent accepted the soup colour and 50percent liked the flavour, 55 percent of the elderly accepted the appearance, 75percent accepted the smell of the product. The dried spinach was mixed with the apple blended well and regarding taste, only 15 percent disliked the taste. Conclusions: The results of this study confirmed that a novel food item such as FMM can be developed to meet certain criteria. Recommendations: Further research is required where long-term effects of the implementation of the multimix in the diet of the elderly can be investigated.
A home gardening training programme to alleviate household food insecurity for low income household dwellers
(2008-06) Lekotoko, Queen Lebogang; Selepe, B. M.; Rutengwe, R. M.
INTRODUCTION: Urban agriculture (UA) is increasingly being seen as an important component of urban development and urban environmental management. Urban agriculture is an alternative source of employment, household income, food and nutrition security among many low-income urban dwellers. Investments in Urban agriculture in South Africa are negatively influenced by a paucity of information on available land and farming opportunities and lack of policy. A situation analysis in Eatonside concluded that high unemployment rates, income-poverty, chronic household food insecurity and a high prevalence of malnutrition existed. Efforts to increase food availability will bring overall benefits to the community. OBJECTIVES: The main objective of this project was to conduct an empirical study to assess food insecurity training needs in order to develop an appropriate home gardening training programme for gardeners in the informal settlements. METHODS: A random selection of 143 households was made from the informal settlement (refer baseline), but only 91 dwellers successfully completed the questionnaires that were administered by four trained field workers. The resu Its were analysed using the SPSS® 12.0 program. MAJOR FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS: The results showed that 72.5 percent had some knowledge of home gardening, whereas 29.7 percent had skills at all in home gardening; 69.2 percent responded that they had some knowledge of soil management, while 69.2 percent had no knowledge regarding planting management and only 13.2 percent had any knowledge regarding storage after harvesting and preparation of vegetables. Out of all the 91 participants, only 29.7 percent had ever worked in a garden. The researcher and fieldworkers were the first group to be trained so that they could conduct the training of the participants with the assistance of the farmers. Since the patiicipants were both male and female, no problems were encountered with digging the ground, as every day after training the males made a point of preparing the ground for the next day. Training was conducted over two days for each group; there were four groups including the fieldworkers. Groups 2 and 3 had 25 participants each while group 4 had 41 participants (n = 91). On day one, the trainers provided all the theory that the participants would need to work in a garden. On day two, the trainers incorporated theory with practical training which involved the participants. CONCLUSION It was found that most of the householders who participated in this project owned a vegetable garden. Most of the participants felt that they had benefited greatly from the training given in the gardening project, both because they were now able to have year round access to fresh vegetables, and because of the money-saving aspect
A food multi-mix supplement for pregnant women in the Vaal Region
(2008-09) Twenefor, Charlotte; Kesa, Hema; Oldewage-Theron, Wilna
Good maternal nutrition is vital for the health and survival of the developing foetus. Nutritive inadequacy has been associated with pregnant women in developing countries particularly Sub Saharan Africa. Adequate intake of both macro and micronutrients by this vulnerable group must be ensured to avoid maternal and infant morbidity and mortality. In this study, a novel approach was employed to develop a cost effective, culturally acceptable and nutrient-dense food multi-mix (FMM) supplement that would help meet 20-25 percent of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of pregnant women aged between 20and 30 years in the Vaal region. Twenty FMM supplements were formulated using South African food composition tables to ensure adequate nutritional content. Two out of the twenty, were selected and named FMM C1 and C3 respectively. FMM C I and C3 was selected owing to their better nutrient contents and affordability when compared with the others. Food items used to formulate FMM C 1 included maize meal, pea powder, peanut dry, milk powder and kidney beans. FMM C3 was formulated with sorghum, maize meal, peanut dry and onion powder. Chosen food items were dried, roasted, ground and mixed together proportionately. FMM supplements (C 1 & C3) were analyzed using standard laboratory techniques to determine their nutrient content. Results obtained were from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC). The shelf life of the FMM supplements was microbiologically tested. Shelf life testing proved safety for the time of consumption, as very little microbiological growth was found in 28 days. The FMM supplements were then incorporated in the development of two acceptable recipes (soup and gravy).Simple recipe leaflets were developed for use by the subjects. The process proved that it is possible to formulate a FMM or any other food product according to certain formulation criteria since formulated FMM supplements (C1 and C3) met the criteria of at least 20% RDA of Protein (g). However, the criteria for micronutrients and energy were difficult to meet as folate iron and energy showed lower percentages of 10%, 14% and 18% respectively in the experimental situation. Sensory evaluation was conducted to ascertain the acceptability of the developed recipes (soup and gravy). The sample consisted of pregnant women randomly selected from John Haynes and Sharpeville clinics respectively, it can be concluded it is possible to formulate and develop products that were culturally acceptable to the consumers (pregnant women) as sensory analysis indicated the majority (85%) of the respondents liked the gravy and 65% liked the soup. Further research is needed to address the impact on nutritional status, long-term compliance and development of range of FMM with various ingredients to determine the most nutritional, cost effective and acceptable product for pregnant women.
Visual literacy and digital image manipulation in a photographic setting
(2009-01) Laurie, Anneke; Gaede, J.
The digital manipulation of images that are presented as photographs in the media raises issues of interpretation and the possible deception of viewers. The central research question of this study was whether training in the visual arts improves awareness of digital image manipulation of photographs. Secondary aims of the research were to investigate correlations between visual production literacy training and awareness of digital image manipulation of photographs as opposed to general visual literacy training. Secondary aims also include the !investigation of attitudes to the manipulation of photographs in relation to different viewing contexts and various levels of manipulation. The literature review provides background information and theoretical frameworks on the nature of the photographic message and how it is read primarily from a semiotic perspective. A further investigation was done into literature regarding the use of attitudes towards and ethical issues surrounding digital manipulation of photographs. In addition, a review of literature on visual literacy supports the argument that awareness of digital manipulation of photographs should and can be improved. For the empirical component of the study, a total of 145 students at the Vaal University of Technology with low, medium and high visual literacy training participated on a voluntary basis. Both qualitative and quantitative data was gathered through a digitally administered questionnaire on six visual images, each manipulated to a different degree. The results show that production literacy, especially specific training in digital image manipulation software, emerged as the main variable to be significantly (beta coefficient = 0.051; Pearson's r value = 0.436) associated with awareness of manipulation techniques as opposed to general visual literacy (standardised regression coefficieFlt = 0.436; Pearson's r = 0.051 ). Findings regarding attitudes to manipulation and the impact of viewing context show no difference between groups. Emanating from these results possibilities for further research were formulated.
Knowledge, attitudes and practices of caregivers of children aged between 0-6- months, residing in the urban informal settlement of Eatonside in the Vaal Triangle
(2009-03) Mangwane, Queen Elizabeth; Rutengwe, R. M.; Oldewage-Theron, W. H.
INTRODUCTION: Caring for children is a challenge that requires a number of resources including knowledge, a reasonable workload, time and social support of the caregiver. Maternal education is an important asset in providing good care giving practices: child feeding practices and the use of preventative health services depend on knowledge more than on household resources. Poverty has been linked with poor childcare and child malnutrition; South African children especially those who are living in informal settlements, are vulnerable to poverty. Appropriate practices by caregivers have enabled them to raise well~ nourished children in a community where there is poverty. This implies that caregiver's attitudes, beliefs and practices in relation to childcare, and proper utilisation of limited resources can make a major difference in their children's health, growth and development. In order to plan appropriate interventions in the Eatonside informal settlement, an improvement in the knowledge of, attitude toward and practice of childcare and care giv1ing is required. OBJECTIVES: To examine the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of caregivers regarding childcare and care giving behaviours with children aged 0- 60 months and to assess existing types of care arrangements in the study area. STUDY DESIGN: An exploratory study was conducted among 145 randomly selected caregivers of children aged 0-60 months, living in the informal settlement of Eatonside. Knowledge and practices were determined by focus group discussions (FGD); an attitude scale questionnaire was used to determine attitude; and a hygiene and feeding observation checklist was used to determine the hygiene and feeding practices.
Food product atttributes guiding purchase choice by low-income households
(2009-06) Marumo, Kuda.; Duvenage, S. S.; Schönfeldt, H. C.
Background: About 66 percent of South Africans are urbanised. The majority of this population is forced by circumstances to live in informal settlements. Despite the income challenges faced, the market expenditure by these low-income consumers amounts to R129 billion per year. A lack of information exists regarding food product attributes that guide purchasing choice for maize meal. Objective of the study: To identify and describe the food product attributes experienced as most important during purchasing of maize meal by low-income consumers in informal settlements in the Johannesburg-Vaal region. Methods: Phase 1 comprised a quantitative survey in three informal! and one formal settlement (n=502), testing the level of importance perceived for 14 food product attributes. In Phase 2, focus group discussions were conducted to describe and compare the understanding of the food product attributes between groups and with literature. Results: Phase 1 defines income level as the boundary within which low-income consumers perceived the importance of food product attributes. Satiety value and the affordability of food products override sensory attributes as the main decision choice, as usually applicable to higher income groups. Nutrient content was ranked least important. These findings can probably be allocated to the need of low-income consumers to satisfy priorities for survival (satiety value). Phase 2 reported no distinctive differences in the meaning of terms between groups. However, a difference exists in the depth of meaning. The majority of descriptive elements indicated a link to economic attributes. Strong cross-links between attributes were revealed through the findings. No major differences were found in the understanding of food product attributes between the respondents' groups and with existing literature. Two concept elements, the versatility of product use as linked to taste and the ability of sensory qualities to report quality of maize meal as linked to product safety, were revealed by the current study. Key words: Food product attributes, low-income households, staple food, maize meal, informal settlement, purchase choice.
Impact of a nutrition education programme on nutrition knowledge and dietary intake practices of primary school children in Boipatong
(2010) Oosthuizen, Delia
Inadequate food intake and unhygienic practices are usually associated with poor nutrition practices. Malnutrition stems from poor quality and quantity of foods, but is also contributed to by factors of inadequate maternal and child health care, lack of education and information and insufficient health services. The first phase of this study was to assess the nutritional status and nutritional knowledge of primary school children within a peri-urban community, through the implementation of a situational analysis. Validated 24-hour (hr) recall, food frequency (FFQ), nutrition knowledge and health questionnaires were used to conduct the situational analysis of this community. Parents (n=52) representative of 400 (13.0 percent) children voluntarily agreed to participate and 45 children completed the baseline survey. Results indicated a community faced with poverty as unemployment (60.9 percent) was high, education levels amongst the parents ranging between primary (33.3 percent) and secondary school (54.9 percent). The dietary patterns of the children revealed a carbohydrate-based diet with very few (n=2) consuming a variety of fruit and vegetables. Some nutrition knowledge amongst the children was evident, with a mean 60.2 percent in correct answers for the true/false questions. The children within the community were at risk of becoming stunted, with small numbers having deficiencies in iron. Therefore, it was decided to implement a nutrition education programme (NEP) in the second phase of the study to address malnutrition amongst primary school children. The objectives of the second phase were 1) to implement a NEP amongst the primary school children to assess the impact on nutrition knowledge and dietary practice, and 2) to determine the retention of knowledge after nine months and whether any correlation occurred between knowledge and dietary practices. The school environment was chosen to ensure attendance and create a suitable learning environment to which the children were already accustomed. Two groups, namely experimental (n=82) and control (n=91), were assigned for this study. The control group received no form of nutrition education during the intervention period. The experimental group received nine 45 minute lessons over a period of nine weeks. The nutrition education tools (NETs) were made up of a text and activity book, supplemented by a card and board game. Pre- and post-nutrition intervention knowledge and 24-hr recall questionnaires were completed to assess differences in nutrition knowledge and dietary practices between the two groups. The intervention made a significant impact on the nutrition knowledge of the experimental group, with a 13 percent improvement between pre and post results. Topics which required more emphasis included the importance of variety in the diet, the functions and sources of certain nutrients, and the classification of certain food groups and the daily serving requirements. In the long-term evaluation, nutrition knowledge was retained and related to topics of the inclusion of milk and fat on a daily basis, the serving size of starch, dairy products and fruit and vegetables, and the classification of low-fat snack items. Retention of knowledge was poor for the source of vitamin C. A few changes were made in the dietary choices of the children after the intervention, with the inclusion of more carbohydrates and one fruit. During the long-term evaluation, the children included more protein sources, but carbohydrates remained dominant within the Top 20 list. The energy distribution in the long term changed towards more energy being supplied from protein (15.6 percent) and fat (34.4 percent), compared with post results of 13.7 and 25.8 percent respectively. The multivariate analysis revealed a significant correlation between the protein intake of the Top 20 list and the question relating to the number of eggs (p=0.00) to be consumed daily, as well as the link between vitamin C (p=0.00) and fruit and vegetable intake. A limitation is that a small number of children (n=27) could not complete the post test, with another 34 children not present to complete the long-term evaluation. The children had very little control of the dietary patterns as their mothers were primarily responsible for food procurement, preparation and feeding. A recommendation is to commence the intervention in the beginning of the year and to consider a co-ordinated approach with parents to encourage dietary changes.
Impact of a training programme on food preparation knowledge and skills of food service workers at Sharpeville care of the aged
(2010-05) Sinthumule, Lufune; Oldewage-Theron, W. H.
Introduction: The education, training and development (ETD) industry has developed fast over the past few years in our country. One need only read the national weekend papers and see all the ETD vacancies advertised to realise that ETD issues are being given increased coverage in this country. The reason for this increased focus on ETD is the need for skilled workers in organisations. Reports on our competitiveness in the world have consistently identified the lack of people development as a major stumbling block for the South African economy in competing in the global market. Objectives: The main objective of this study was to measure the impact of a training programme for the food service workers providing meals to 300 elderly people attending the Sharpeville Care of the Aged centre, in terms of a skills development programme, in order to contribute to increased productivity and provide nutritious meals to the elderly. Methods: A baseline survey was undertaken to determine the nutritional status, food consumption patterns and nutrient intake in a random sample of 300 elderly people attending the care centre five days a week. Socio-demographic and health questionnaires, as well as 24-hour recall questionnaires were completed with the assistance of trained fieldworkers. Anthropometric measurements included weight, height, and Mid-Upper Arm Circumference. Furthermore, the existing menus served to the elderly were theoretically analysed using FoodFinder® version 3 program to determine the energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat content. A developed and tested questionnaire was used to gather information from ten volunteer food service workers at the care centre to determine the training needs. The results of the baseline survey, the menu analysis and training needs assessment were used to develop a training programme that was implemented for a period of ten weeks. Learning was measured after the training programme by administering the same knowledge questionnaire, as well as by a portfolio of evidence and practical assessment. Data analyses: Data for the baseline survey was captured on an Excel spreadsheet. Data analysis was done using the Statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 10.0 program for all variables except dietary intake data. Dietary intake and food consumption data were analysed by a registered dietician using the FoodFinder® version 3 program, developed by the Medical Research Council (MRC). Daily nutrient intakes were reported as means and standard deviations and compared to RDAs. Paired t tests were done to determine correlations between knowledge of the food service workers before and after the implementation of the training programme. Results: The results indicated that the majority of the elderly had an income of between R500 and R1 000 per month and most of them reported an occasional lack of funds to meet basic household needs, confirming the presence of food insecurity. Daily dietary intakes (mean ±Standard Deviation [SD] were 5 041,2 ± 2 299,6 kilojoules (kJ) energy, 50,4 ± 28,2 gram (g) protein, 38,9 ± 28,2 g fat and 149,0 ± 76,6 g carbohydrates. The majority (29.5%) were overweight (body mass index [BMI] ~25) or obese (BMI ~30) whilst 33.5% had a mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) of ~21.7 centimetres (em). Mean intakes of micronutrients were low in comparison with the reference standards. The volunteer food service workers were literate as the majority had higher than grade 10-12 training and 80% had previously received on-the-job training. The training programme was successfully implemented and the knowledge of the voluntary food service workers improved after the training programme was implemented. However, because of the small sample size no significance could be determined. Conclusions: The findings of this study confirmed that poverty, malnutrition, both under- and over-nutrition, as well as household food insecurity and poor health were the major problems observed in this elderly community. These findings correspond to other studies, however limited, conducted amongst the elderly in South Africa. The results indicated that, although the food service workers were literate and had received prior training, they still had a poor knowledge of appropriate food preparation method and practices, as well as nutrition, especially related to the elderly. On completion of the training programme, the knowledge of the food service workers improved. This study emphasises the importance of continued on-the-job training Recommendations: The recommendations of further research include: 1) A more detailed study to evaluate the influence of the training programme not only on knowledge and skills, but also on behaviour and attitude. 2) Periodically measuring such influence over a year to measure knowledge retention. 3) Implementation of a NEP for the elderly and its impact on nutrition knowledge and dietary intake behaviour tested.
The impact of dietary diversification on the nutritional status of pregnant women in the Vaal Region
(2010-06) Kesa, Hema; Oldewage-Theron, Wilna; Venter, Christine
The main objective of this study was to develop a cost-effective, culturally acceptable, nutrient-dense food multimix (FMM) based on local food staples for pregnant women in the Vaal region. The impact of the consumption of the multimix on the nutritional status of the women, dietary diversity and outcomes of pregnancy was assessed in an intervention study by measuring the same variables as for a pilot study where the nutritional status of pregnant women was determined. Compliance was measured through monitoring of the FMM consumption and sensory evaluation tests. Quantitative food frequency questionnaires (QFFQs) and 24-hour recall questionnaires were completed in interviews. Anthropometric and biochemical measurements were recorded. The pilot study indicated that the mean total iron intake was 9,74 mg/day, below the estimated average requirement (EAR) of 22 mg/day for pregnant women. Therefore, 41,7 per cent of the women were found to be iron deficient and 50 per cent suffered from iron deficiency anaemia. Food consumed supplied little iron. Eighty per cent of the women were overweight before falling pregnant. Based on the pilot study, the FMM was developed and subjected to the following processes: chemical analysis, shelf life tests, recipe development and sensory evaluation. The product was then implemented in an intervention programme. A control group of pregnant women received soup powder. The respondents were relatively healthy and did not suffer from any chronic diseases. According to the nutrient intakes measured by the QFFQ, indicating usual dietary intakes, the iron intake of 87,5 per cent of the experimental group and 94 per cent of the control group fell below the EAR before intervention. After the intervention it improved in that the iron intake of 35,2 per cent of the experimental group and 33,3 per cent of the control group fell below the EAR. The top 10 items consumed by the experimental group during pre- and post-intervention were mainly rich in carbohydrates. Food containing iron absorption inhibitors such as tannin in tea and phytates in maize meal and bread were among the top 10 foods listed. The highest number of individual food items consumed by an individual in seven days was 39 before the intervention and 52 after the intervention, among the experimental group. The individual food variety improved after the intervention. The reason for this could be the inclusion of the FMM in their diets. The majority of the respondents consumed eight to nine of the nutritious food groups before and after the intervention. The mean food variety score (FVS) for the control group was 38,9 (±10,5) before the intervention, which decreased to 35,8 (±8,39) after the intervention. No improvement in FVS was observed after the intervention in the control group and the FVS indicated medium dietary diversity (30-60 food items). The post-intervention results show that there was an improvement in most of the iron variables. The experimental group showed statistically significant differences between pre- and post-intervention measurements in transferrin and haematocrit levels and the control group in haematocrit levels. All the babies born to the mothers of both the experimental and control groups were healthy with measurements in the normal range. The reason for this could be that the inclusion of the FMM and soup powder in the diets of the experimental and control group, respectively, made the women more aware of the importance of pregnancy monitoring. Furthermore, the attention given to the women by the clinic sisters and the researchers could have contributed to all the improvements mentioned.
Development of a healthy snack for children with HIV/AIDS or compromised immunity
(2010-07-19T12:09:54Z) Erasmus, Valerie
Background - Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the virus that causes the disease Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). the IV/AIDS epidemic in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has already orphaned a generation of children, and it is projected that by 2010, 18 million African children under the age of 18 years are likely to be orphans (Andrew, Skinner & Zuma 2006:269-276). In 2005 approximately 4.1 million people died of AIDS-related illnesses. A common consequence of HIV/AIDS infection is malnutrition and weight loss, which is used as a diagnostic criterion for HIV/AIDS. the relationship between HIV/AIDS and malnutrition and wasting is well desccribed, with nutritional status compromised by reduced food intake, malabsorption caused by gastrointestinal involvement, increased nutritional needs as a result of fever and infection and increased nutritional losses. Malnutrition contributes to the frequency and severity of the opportunistic infections seen in HIV/AIDS and nutritional status is a major factor in survival. Failure to maintain body cell mass leads to death at 54 percent of ideal body weight. The effectiveness of nutrition intervention has been documented and counselling in dietary nutrition is considered critical in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Objective - The main objective of this study was to determine the nutritional status of the HIV/AIDS-affected or immunity compromised children attending a care centre in Boipatong in order to develop an energy bar to address malnutrition in these children. Methodology - This was an experimental study carried out in four phases. The planning of the study constituted the first phase. In the second phase a baseline survey was conducted, in which a socio-demographic questionnaire (n=45) was administered amongst children aged six to 13, with the assistance of trained fieldworkers. Dietary intake was measured by a 24-hour recall and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) and anthropometric measurements included height and weight. The data from the socio-demographic questionnaires and FFQ were captured on an Excel spreadsheet. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 15.0 program was used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics were used (frequencies, means and SD. The 24-hour recall was analysed for means and Standard Deviation (SD) of nutrient intakes on the FoodFinder program version 3.0 and compared to Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI). The anthropometric measurements were analysed using the WHO growth standards (2007). Phase 3 incorporated the development of the snack bar, sensory evaluation, microbiological tests for shelf life determination and chemical analyses to determine nutrient content. Phase 4 entailed the writing of the report. Results - In the baseline survey the results indicated that this was a low-income community with compromised nutrtion, mainly under-nutrition owing to poor dietary intake despite a good variety of foods in the diet. All the households included in this study were resident in Boipatong and the majority (86.5 percent) have lived in Boipatong for longer than five years. although the majority of respondents resided in brick houses (69 percent), only 30 percent had access to water inside and outside their houses, 23.1 percent had access to water, 78.4 percent had access to electricity and 75 percent had regular waste removal. The percentage of unemployed among the children's caregivers was high (60.9 percent) and the majority of households (40 percent) had an income on R500-1000 per month, with two contributors of household income in 57 percent of the households. Although the average household consisted of five people, the houses were relatively small with 75 percent of all the households having four or more rooms. All of the households experienced problems such as rodent and insect infestation. The household food security was also a dilemma in this community as 70.6 percent of the respondents indicated that they bought food only once a month and the majority of households spent less than R150 (5.4 percent of household income) on food per month i.e. less than R37.50 per week. The anthropometric results indicated 29 percent stunting, and 23 percent underweight among the boys in the target group, compared to 30 percent and 0 percent for the girls respectively. The criteria applied in developing the snack food were to achieve at least 25 percent of vitamin A, vitamin C, Vitamin E, certain B-group vitamins and minerals such as selenium, zinc and iron to meet the recommended dietary allowances (RDA). Since the results showed that 67 percent of households had an electrical stove, an easily prepared recipe was formulated which could be taught to the caregiver. Moreover, at R1.50 per person per day, the product was cost-effective and proved safe as well as acceptable to the children, thus ensuring compliance when the feeding intervention is implemented. The sensory evaluation of the snack item showed that it was acceptable to the majority of the children as it received a high score for taste, general appearance and overall acceptability. The snack food item was tested for shelf life and the results showed a shelf life of 168 days in a refrigerator and a recommeded shelf life of 21 days at room temperature (30 C). Conclusions and recommendations - The results indicated that poverty, household food insecurity and malnutrition were prevalent in this community. Furthermore, the study proved that a product could be developed to meet specific criteria. It is recommended that this product be tested in a clinical intervention study to determine the impact on the nutritional status of children with compromised immunity.
Development of a nutritious, acceptable and affordable snack food to prevent obesity in children
(2010-07-21T06:31:06Z) du Plessis, Rachel Magdalena
Background: Approximately 45% of South Africans are overweight, including 20% of children under six years of age. Snack foods are now targeted in the food industry, globally, as an obesity prevention initiative, focusing on children to ensure the adoption of a healthy lifestyle from an early age. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the nutritional status and snack consumption patterns of children (n=290) 9 to 13 years old in the Vaal Region at two purposively selected primary schools in order to develop a healthy snack food item that will address obesity in children from a very young age. Methods: A baseline survey included a pre-tested questionnaire, administered by trained fieldworkers to determine snack food consumption patterns. Anthropometric measurements included weight and height. A snack food item was developed to meet certain criteria identified from the literature and baseline survey. The methods included: snack food development and preparation, chemical analyses to determine actual content, microbiological tests to determine shelf life and sensory analyses to determine acceptability. Study design: Cross-sectional analytical study. Data analyses: Data of the questionnnaires were captured and analysed for descriptive statistics (frequencies, means and standard deviations). The anthropometric data were captured and analysed using the World Health Organisation (WHO) standards for 2007. Results: The results showed that the children in the sample knew the meaning of healthy snacks, although the majority (66.8%) consumed unhealthy snacks, especially from school tuck shops. The top ten snack foods most commonly consumed daily were: coffee (48.3%), tea (46.1%), crispy chips (39.1%), fruit juice (38.0%), chicken (35.1%), fried potato chips (33.6%), carbonated drinks (26.9%), biscuits (26.2%), toffees (26.2%) and yoghurt (25.8%). The majority (56.8%) of the respondents indicated that they receive between R2 and R5 per week for tuck shop money, besides their monthly pocket money (64.6%). Most of the respondents (45.4%) spend their pocket money on snack food items and these are mainly consumed while watching television (36.9%) and when bored (29.5%). The anthropometric results indicated that 11.7% of the group were underweight, 12.1% of the group were stunted; in addition 20% were at risk of underweight, and 23.4% at risk of being stunted. A significantly higher percentage of girls (16.81) were stunted compared with the boys (5.0%). Also 7.6% of the group were overweight. More girls were overweight compared with boys. A snack food item was developed to address obesity in this region. The criteria met were that it was affordable, at cost of R0.55 per 30g portion, was low in fat and had high-density nutritional value, with at least 20% of the DRI for protein and iron, had a shelf life of 28 days and was generally acceptable to the majority of the respondents. Conclusion and recommendations: This study showed that obesity is becoming a problem amongst children in the Vaal Region. Although primary school children knew healthy snack foods, their behaviour indicated a large consumption of unhealthy snack foods. A low-fat, low-energy, low-cost and acceptable snack food item was successfully developed to address the obesity problem in the region. Further research is recommended where this snack food item is implemented in an intervention study to measure its impact on the nutritional status of obese primary school children.
Comparative analysis of five different school feeding strategies in the Vaal region
(2010-07-22T06:37:51Z) Kearney, Jeanette Emmerentia
School feeding programmes are defined as interventions that deliver a meal or snack to children in the school setting, with the intent of improving attendance, enrolment, nutritional status and learning outcomes. The Primary School Nutrition Programme (PSNP) was introduced in South Africa as a Presidential Lead Project in 1994 with the specific aim to improve education by enhancing active learning capacity, school attendance and punctuality. However, not all children qualify to participate in the PSNP and a variety of alternative products, of which little information is known, are used as part of school feeding programmes implemented by non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The aim of this study was to investigate such programmes used in the Vaal Region. Five different products used in school feeding programmes in a primary school in Eatonside and two primary schools in Orange Farm were compared in terms of the nutritional content of the products, the impact of these products after a seven month intervention on the nutritional status of the children by analysing their dietary intakes as well as biochemical and anthropometrical measurements, menu cost, compliance of the products by conducting sensory analyses and shelf life studies, and the impact on school attendance. Based on the results of this study, guidelines on the optimal school feeding strategy would be provided to NGO’s and to the Gauteng Department of Education. The five products were a micronutrient dense “vetkoek”, PSNP, two commercial products namely Corn Soya Blend (CSB) and Sejo and, lastly, fruit, which was used as the control. In the Sethlabotja school in Eatonside, the sample consisted of 160 randomly selected boys and girls (40 children participating in the PSNP, and 60 children in each of the vetkoek and fruit groups) and in Sinqobile and Reitumetse schools in Orange Farm the sample included 45 randomly selected children in each of the CSB and Seja groups. Pre-intervention results indicated poor nutritional status. Mean daily energy intake of all the children was below the Dietary Reference Intakes for children between seven and ten years. A mainly carbohydrate-based diet was followed, with inadequate fruit and vegetable intake. The anthropometric indices indicated acute and chronic food shortage. The biochemical results indicated that normal values were present for the majority of the parameters. The post-intervention results indicated that the food consumption patterns did not change substantially during the intervention but the mean energy intake of the children as well as weight, height and body mass index increased with all the interventions. Although few statistically significant differences were observed between the five groups with regard to nutritional status indices, positive changes were observed in each of the groups. The products evaluated in this study proved to be within the range of the provincial school feeding budget. CSB and Sejo were the cheapest programmes because they are subsidised. Compliance to the products was good. No significant differences between commercial and home-prepared food items were found. School attendance was not formally recorded in all the groups. However, a decrease in absenteeism was noted in those groups where it was recorded. It is recommended that further research is conducted on the impact of school feeding on the cognitive performance of school learners in the Vaal Region.
Perspectives of parents, learners and educators from Vanderbijlpark secondary schools on obligatory prescribed school uniforms
(2010-08-31T10:06:00Z) Wilken, Ilani
INTRODUCTION: Supporters of school uniforms argue that uniforms serve as a social and economic equaliser, reducing competition regarding clothing and reducing demands on parents to buy expensive, trendy clothes. Other benefits mentioned are functionality, time saving, appearance, safety, and improved academic standards and behaviour. Opponents of school uniforms differ maintaining that compulsory uniform infringes on learners’ constitutional rights to self-expression. The problem statement encompasses the desirability and viability of obligatory school uniforms in South Africa. AIM: The broad aim of this study is to determine the perspectives of parents, learners and educators at public schools in Vanderbijpark on obligatory school uniforms. METHODOLOGY: A structured questionnaire was used to gather data. Section 1 comprised general information, section 2 dealt with the advantages and disadvantages of obligatory school uniforms and section 3 contained options for more trendy school uniforms. A random stratified sample of learners in two grade 10 classes and their parents and educators was chosen from four selected schools. RESULTS: Most of the parents were between 41 and 45 years of age, by far the majorities was white, nearly a quarter had a diploma/certificate and another quarter a degree, nearly three-quarters were married or traditionally married, and nearly a third spent R901-R1200 per year on school uniforms. Most parents and educators and nearly two-thirds of the learners were highly in favour of school uniforms. Regarding the advantages and disadvantages of eight factors with reference to obligatory school uniforms as perceived by parents, learners and educators, the educators rated seven of the eight factors higher than parents and learners did, while parents rated the same factors higher than learners did, implying that learners were the least positive. The order in which they ranked the advantages was often the same or similar. They all ranked the competition aspect first, the academic aspect seventh and the economic aspect eighth, while functionality was ranked either third or fourth. Regarding preferences for more trendy uniforms, three-quarter pants and sandals were rated very low in popularity. All the stakeholders were in favour of the more traditional pants, shirt and proper shoes for both boys and girls, with a slightly more informal jacket instead of the traditional blazer.
Evaluating a nutrition education programme for food service assistants in pre-schools in the Vaal Region
(2010-11) Spillman, Rene.; Dicks, E. G.; Oldewage-Theron, W. H.
Malnutrition amongst pre-school children age two-to-five-years is a growing world-wide concern. This is mainly due to poverty, diseases and inadequate dietary intake. Malnourished children are also a problem in South Africa. Pre-schools play an important role in the prevention of malnutrition because most young children consume about two thirds of their food and therefore their daily nutritional intake at the pre-schools. There are various factors that affect a child's nutrition in pre-schools, such as food choices, meal plans, the environment and the nutritional knowledge of the caregivers. Pre-schools can only fulfill this responsibility through the proper nutritional knowledge and training. The nutritional education and knowledge of food service assistants/caregivers are very important, because they compile the meal plans and menus for pre-schools. The objectives of this study were to evaluate a Nutrition Education Programme (NEP) to address the lack of nutritional knowledge of service assistants/caregivers who plan the menus in pre-schools in terms of existing menu content and food choices required for children between two to five years of age and by using the existing menus and food choices applied to make recommendations for nutritional skills training. Also in terms of basic nutrition, health and safety, to recommend more appropriate alternatives acceptable to children between two to five years of age. Lastly to integrate recommendations for nutritional skill training with regard to the alternative meal plan, eating habits and food choices for the menu through a NEP that would be implemented and evaluated. The study design was a combination of an exploratory and quantitative-descriptive research design in the form of a survey. A pilot study was used mainly to test the nutrition knowledge questionnaires for content validity. The study population of this research project was randomly selected pre-schools chosen from the Eatonside informal settlement. Procedures for data gathering and the different methods used for data analysis were divided into four phases. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the percentage of pre-schools who answered the questions correctly for selected nutrition knowledge, portion sizes questions and menu planning, as well as food safety and health. Paired t-tests were carried out to measure the statistically significant difference (pS0.05) before and after the implementation of the NEP. The results of the t-test indicate that only nine of the questions in the post-test questionnaire showed a confidence interval of the difference. There is statistical significance in these questions through either increase or decrease. It can be concluded that the Nutrition Education Programme (NEP) was successful, but that more training is needed due to the limitations experienced. The menu analysis tested the respondent's menus in terms of the average daily nutrient intake level given to the pre-school children. The data of the pre- and post-test menus were then compared to EAR in order to determine any change in the menus nutritional values after the NEP was completed. The results showed that there were differences in the post-test results that both decreased and increased.

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